A Biography by Paula Bartley - Ch 2: The Liberal Years

- Happily married, Emmeline and Richard reshaped their marriage to suit their political beliefs, going against traditional views- unity rather than wife 'under' husband
-  As a wife and mother, it is necessary to note that E.P began in these roles rather conservative, with little time to engage in political activities. She had five children between 1880 and 1889 who were mostly taken care of by servants.
- Her children were educated by a governess and their aunt, before attending high schools. They had wide access to books on philosophy, science, history and often read.
- E.P educated her children in politics, more than what school taught them. They were engaged in socialist endeavours (singing songs, handing out leaflets).
- Family in constant financial difficulties  
- Family home often had visitors regarding the suffragette movement, radicalism, House of Lords,  Republicanism, socialism, the new trade unionism and more.
- Pankhurst's broke off from the Liberal Party when they could not carry out its radical programme and joined the Independent Labour Party.
- ILP seeked to gin socialism through parliamentary practise rather than radicalism.
- Women's Franchise League was established on July 25th, 1889 - two aims:
   1) 'To extend to women, whether unmarried, married or widowed, the right to vote at Parliamentary, municipal local and other elections'
   2) 'To establish for all women equal civil and political rights with men'
- Although the WFrL did not last long, it gave E.P a greater awareness, and taught her strategies of policy and commitment.
- E.P's characteristics were demonstrated: emotional response to politics, commitment to fight against injustice, inability to compromise on her values/beliefs, willingness, individualism and her dedication to the alleviation of poverty.  

A Biography by Paula Bartley - Ch 1: Shaping a Life

I finally got my hands on a biography, 'Emmeline Pankhurst', by Paula Bartley, published in 2002 by Routledge.

• Pankhurst's militancy is partly attributed to her Manx heritage; Manx women, inhabiting the Isle of Man, had more legal and political rights than English and thus gained the right to vote in 1881.
• Emmeline had four sisters and six brothers (although the eldest died at only 2.5 years old)
• E.P's family fostered her 'commitment to suffrage and her emancipatory politics'.
• Her parents were committed to social reform so E.P was exposed to politics and was surrounded by intelligentsia her parents were acquainted with
• Emmeline's parents encouraged her to practically do something to stop injustices she was passionate about
• At the age of ten, E.P was affected by the Fenian Revolt whereby the leaders of the rebellion killed a police officer while escaping from a prison van.
• E.P stated, 'I had always been an unconscious suffragist. With my temperament and my surroundings I could scarcely have been otherwise'.
• Originally attended a boarding school- in her time, females were generally educated poorly- majority did not attend school but the Pankhurst's were wealthy enough to send Emmeline to school.
• Victorian ideal of a perfectly educated woman:  decorative, poised, empty-headed companion for a future husband.
• Emmeline married Richard Pankhurst in 1879 at the age of 21- he was 23 years older.
• Richard: middle class, radical idealist, committed to social reform. It has been said that 'she (E.P) had a smouldering fire, he kindled the flame'
• He was committed to women's suffrage, an active member of the Manchester National Society for Women's Suffrage
• It is misleading to suggest that it was Emmeline's parents or Richard who shaped her into the political activist she was, as she essentially developed a conscience of her own, however, they were substantial influences.

Textbook Insights

It came to my attention that there is a whole chapter in my school textbook, 'Turning Points', devoted to the British suffragette movement. Here are some of the main points:

- Girls who chose to be educated 'properly' (aka. academics - other than learning domestic duties and music, etc.) were considered unladylike and were often insulted.

- Right to vote was the first step in women having the same rights as men- it gave them a foot in politics.

- Have females been raised to accept unequal treatment?

- Pankhurst recalled her father saying that it was a pity she wasn't born a boy.
- Below is a poster from 1912 arguing that women work just as hard as men, if not harder and still receive unfair treatment.

- Contradicting to this is a poster from 1900 reinforcing typical gender roles, showing that women are only interested in material, simple things rather than larger issues of politics.

- 1889: E.P helped form the Women's Franchise League
- 1903: E.P formed WSPU - by 1905 the WSPU lost media interest and hence moved on to more violent methods for publicity
- In a period of eighteen months, E.P endured 10 hunger strikes
- 1917: E.P and daughter Christabel formed Women's Party supporting equal pay, maternity/infant care and changes to marriage laws (whereby women had no legal rights).
- For suffragettes, there was a constant struggle as to whether they should go outside of the law to get what they want (a.k.a. militant methods), or to stay within the boundaries. Those who went outside the law, such as Pankhurst, believed that it was the only way, 'reason and logic have failed' (Adela Pankhurst).
- Women were described as slaves in the 19th Century due to their poor, unfair treatment.
- WSPU began abiding by the law, however were not seeing fruition. 
- WSPU motto: 'deeds not words' - motivated them for heavier action - militant actions proved women did not have to stay in traditional place (obedient, submissive, etc.)
- Government promised to support votes for women, however, continually resisted granting them the vote. As a result, WSPU members took more direct action with politicians. They disrupted parliament sittings, held protests outside their homes and even ambushed the ministers while they were playing golf.
- Black Friday: Over 100 women were arrested before the general election of 1910 when members of the WSPU arrived at the House of Commons. Police met them there and a 'violent confrontation' broke out. Suffragettes were pushed to the ground, assaulted and trampled. Many were injured and two women died.
- A counter-movement of anti-suffragettes grew as the supporting movement gained more attention and publicity. The Women's National Anti-Suffrage League was established in 1908. They were against granting the vote to women for the following reasons according to their manifesto:

• 'Spheres' of men and women were naturally different
• Women had no ability to run the modern state
• Women were already able to be politically active in their local council
• Women would become less interested in social cause/charities if granted the vote
• Women voters would outnumber men
• Political disagreements would upset homes
• 'Giving women the vote was  dangerous experiment that should not be risked'

- In my opinion, many of the above reasons have nothing to do with women and are mere excuses. For example, political disagreements are bound to occur whether women are granted the vote or not, that is simply politics.

- Derby Day occurred on the 4th of June, 1913. Suffragettes became increasingly militant in their actions and this day is well known for its horrific, desperate acts. A woman named Emily Wilding Davidson threw herself under the king's horse and died four days later. She was hailed at a martyr for this reason.

- World War 1 of 1914 called for an end to the suffragette campaign, or at least a pause. E.P. wanted women to support the government and war effort. By the end of the war, society had changed dramatically; women were working from all classes, women were more independent (leaving home for example) and numbers of divorces rose from 596 (1910) to 1629 (1920).  

- To show recognition of women's war service, females over the age of thirty (conditional - if they owned certain amounts of property, graduated from university, etc.) were granted the right to vote in 1918. Below is an image of the first woman voting in 1918.

- Women were finally granted the same rights to vote as men in 1928.  

- It can be argued that we take political rights for granted today, especially here in Australia. Are women equal to men today or do we still live in a patriarchal society?

19th and 20th Century England

As mentioned in an earlier blog post, Emmeline Pankhurst lived from 1858-1928. I thought I would research a little bit on the context of that time period to better understand Pankhurst's life.

The Industrial Revolution spanned from about 1760 to 1850. Pankhurst was born into a modernised world. From 1801-1901, the population of Britain had increased by 32 million and over two thirds of the population lived in towns. Factories and technology swept over the world.  

The Romantic Era lasted from 1750-1870 and hence impacted the first 12 years of Pankhurst's life, although it was on the decline. This period of time was centred on self-expression and uniqueness. Visual art, music and literature had an important role and people idolised the artist.

The Victorian era went from 1837-1901. This is the main period in which Pankhurst lived so this is what I would like to focus a bit more on as it would have been of great influence in shaping her adulthood; Pankhurst was 43 when this era came to and end. The era was lengthy as Queen Victoria reigned 63 years, longer than any other British Monarch. It has been described as 'prudish', 'repressed' and 'old-fashioned'. The middle class were increasing in number as well as power and acting 'proper', according to the time's values, was a significant part of social conventions, hence why Pankhurst's thoughts and actions against the nobility were so controversial. British Imperial power expanded immensely into many parts of Africa, India, the Middle East and other parts of Asia. Impacts of this included a wider use of the English language outside of Europe and increased trade. Other important aspects of the Victorian era include the drive for social advancement, "finding" what English really is and what makes up the English people and later in the era, rebellion began to increase in notion. 

The idea of 'separate spheres' was evident and defined men and women separately, and often in a sexist manner. For example, females were considered physically weaker than men and men were considered morally weaker than women. Women were therefore best suited to the domestic lifestyle and men to the working industry. It has been said that 'the fact that women had such a great influence at home was used as an argument against giving them the vote'.    

Working class women had to work to support their families, usually in factories, domestic services for more wealthy individuals (e.g. a maid), or in home-based jobs including making garments or shoes and doing laundry work. Many women worked in sweat industries which are known for long hours with low pay.Women were payed less than men in exactly the same job as they were considered secondary to the main income earner. Women and daughters in the middle and upper classes were expected to fit into the domestic lifestyle which included get married and caring for their children at home, as well as domestic chores such as cooking and cleaning. Sometimes these women would work, however only in jobs considered decent and respectable such as a music teacher or governess. Professional jobs such as lawyers and vets excluded women. Women were denied the right the vote which prompted Pankhurst in her fight for equal rights. 

During World War One (1914-18), many women took up new jobs to help with the war effort. Munition factories arose due to the high demand for weapons. Factories were initially opposed to hiring women however conscription in 1916 meant female workers were necessary. As many men were fighting in the war, women also had to fill regular jobs that were normally reserved for men such as police and clerks. Women's employment rates increased. It is important to note that during this time Pankhurst and her suffrage movement took a break to focus on the war. 

Religion was being questioned, especially Christianity as doubt was heavily evident. However, for the most part, religion was still a way of life. Many people regularly went to church and read the Bible.

Education was unequal between sexes and classes. Wealthy males were tutored at home before attending a school such as Westminster or Eton College, or a small handful of public schools. After this they were expected to attend Oxford or Cambridge to gain higher education. Females, however, were primarily educated at home. Boarding schools were an option but not university. While males studied philosophy, literature, mathematics, law and more, females were limited to drawing, music, French and dancing. Sometimes sewing and embroidery were included.

When a woman married, she gained no independent legal status- no money, no will, no right to buy property, no right to claim her children and had to obey her husband and move with him wherever he went.

         

Cat and Mouse Act

The Cat and Mouse Act was introduced due to the hunger strikes carried out by Emmeline and Christabel's suffragettes. Imprisoned women would refuse to eat, aiming to embarrass the government and create attention for women's rights.

The suffragettes were successful, especially in embarrassing the government, so as a result, the women were force-fed. This was an action usually only taken in lunatic asylums and hence was very controversial. Although it prevented death within the prison which would be even worse for the government, it did not help their image, reflecting poor control of their people.

This is where the Cat and Mouse Act comes into play. The government resolved the issue in 1913 through relatively simple logic: When a suffragette was arrested and went on hunger strike, the government stopped force-feeding them and rather left them to become ill and weak, a state in which they were not able to harm the public. They would then be released 'on license' so they didn't die in the prison and create political drama. The period of time the women received out of prison was included in their sentence and then they would be re-arrested to finish their sentence, whereby it was likely they would again go on hunger strike and so the 'Cat and Mouse' scenario moves in circles.

The idea of being released assumed that the suffragette would begin to eat again and regain strength. With this new strength, they would be put back into the prison, making life easier on the government. 

The name 'Cat and Mouse Act' was brought about due to a cat's tendency to play with its prey before it is killed.

It is arguable as to whether the Cat and Mouse Act was actually effective in preventing suffragette actions against the government, however at the time it did "save" the government's reputation. Violent acts by the movement did not actually cease until 1914 when World War One broke out.      

Women's Social and Political Union (WSPU)

In October 1903, Emmeline Pankhurst founded the Women's Social and Political Union in Manchester. The Independent Labour party (ILP) was the main suffrage movement however, Pankhurst believed that they were not very committed to women's rights, using limited actions. As a result, from the very beginning, the WSPU created the motto, 'deeds not words', which they aimed to live by.

Although the WSPU did not start out as a militant movement, they later became one, arguably, due to the government. In 1906, the liberal Party came to power which brought hopes of women's rights as liberalism literally means 'a political philosophy focussed on equality'. However, political reform did not come about, making the suffragettes angry and causing controversial acts. The women thought the more militant and hard their actions were - for example, going to prison rather than paying a fine - the more headlines they would get for their cause, which was most important to the movement. Emmeline's daughter, Christabel wrote, 'This was the beginning of a campaign the like of which was never known in England, or for that matter in any other country...we interrupted a great many meetings...and were violently thrown out and insulted. Often we were painfully bruised and hurt.' These radical actions were so different to those of any other suffragettes at the time who were merely polite and gentle. The WSPU believed they had to force the government to give them what they wanted otherwise it would never happen.

It was argued that the WSPU were only focussed on political rights rather than equality on all levels. For example, women were still payed less than men in the exact same job and were generally considered a minority under men regardless of their political rights such as being able to vote. For this reason, many were against the WSPU.

The WSPU were often in a level of danger as the police manhandled them frequently when they interrupted meetings and often misused their powers. Commoners and thugs who didn't agree with the group would try to set them as outcasts, often interrupting their meetings and trying to stop the movement.  

The actions of the WSPU before the war can be categorised into three separate phases:

1. 1905-1918: publicity seen as 'good' and the only major acts were disrupting political meetings.
2. 1908-1913: Threats to public order, although kept to a minimum. This included smashing windows and chaining railings. The aim here was to embarrass the government through hunger strikes in prison, etc.
3. 1913-1914: Attacks on properties of significance such as churches and Westminster Abbey.

A Timeline of Emmeline Pankhurst's Life

I started researching about Emmeline Pankhurst this week and the extraordinary life she led. I thought I'd put a timeline together to provide a brief biography of her life.

14th July, 1858 - Emmeline Pankhurst was born in England. Her father was heavily involved in politics, as was her mother who took her along to suffrage meetings.
1879 - Emmeline married Richard Pankhurst to whom she later had three daughters with. Richard was Emmeline's main source of support as he too was passionate about women's rights.  
1st January, 1889 - Women's Franchise League was established, an organisation founded by Emmeline and her husband.
1st January, 1894 - The right for married women to vote! This was a big step which is said to have 'truly changed the world'. However, they could only vote in elections for local offices and not in the House of Commons.
1898 - Richard Pankhurst died.
16th March, 1903 - Women's social and Political Union was established, which was later changed to simply, 'The Women's Party' in 1917. From this point, the suffrage movement attracted more widespread attention.
1905 - Emmeline's daughter Christabel as well as Annie Kenney were arrested and taken to jail as a result of being thrown out of a liberal election for demanding women's rights and then technically assaulting police (threatening them) and not paying their fines. Emmeline became a supporter of the 'jail' idea, encouraging members of the suffragette movement to attract attention and make a more dominant stand by being arrested for a  worthwhile cause.
1908-09 - Emmeline Pankhurst is jailed three times.
1912 - The WSPU becomes militant in their actions. This included arson attacks, window smashing and hunger strikes. Emmeline is arrested and released 12 times during the year.
1913 - The Cat and Mouse, or Prisoner's, Act meant that prisoner's who were on hunger-strike could be freed and then reimprisoned without it affecting the duration of their sentence.
1914 - World war I begins so Emmeline calls off the suffragette campaign in order to help the war effort. 
February 1918 - Representation of People Act is passed, giving the right to vote to women over 30.
14th June, 1928 - Emmeline Pankhurst died at the age of 69, having achieved what she desired most- the right for women to vote.